Indian Sculpture, Pottery and Coins Notes for UPSC

Indian sculpture, pottery and coins are the physical records of our culture. They show how religion, kingship, trade and art changed from the Harappan times to the medieval age. For the UPSC Prelims, the questions are about the schools of sculpture (Gandhara, Mathura and Amaravati), the famous bronzes, the types of pottery and the early coins; for the Mains, you can use them as evidence in answers on Indian art and ancient and medieval history. This note explains each of these topics in simple language, with comparison tables and quick revision points.

Sculpture in the Indus Valley and the Mauryan Age

The Harappans made fine small sculptures. The bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-daro was made by the lost-wax method, the bearded Priest-King is in steatite, and the terracotta figures of the mother goddess and animals show a developed art. In the Mauryan age (3rd century BCE), the court art flourished under Ashoka. The great pillars of polished sandstone from Chunar, with the bright "Mauryan polish", carry animal capitals of the lion, bull, elephant and horse. The Lion Capital of Sarnath with four lions and the Dharma chakra is the National Emblem of India. Other examples are the Yakshi of Didarganj (Patna), the Parkham Yaksha (Mathura) and the rock-cut elephant at Dhauli in Odisha. Folk art of the age is seen in terracotta figures and small images.

Post-Mauryan Sculpture: Sunga and Satavahana Art

In the Sunga period, the railings of the Bharhut stupa were carved with the Jataka stories and the Yakshi figures. The Sanchi stupa was enlarged, and its four gateways (toranas) built under the Satavahanas have beautiful carvings of the life of the Buddha, where the Buddha is shown through symbols such as the footprint, the wheel, the lotus and the bodhi tree. At Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), the sculptors worked in white marble with flowing narrative panels, and the school flourished under the Satavahanas and the Ikshvakus. In this early phase, the Buddha was not shown in human form.

The Three Great Schools of the Kushan Age

Gupta Sculpture

The Gupta age (4th to 6th century CE) is the classical period of Indian sculpture. The images were calm, spiritual and refined, with the transparent drapery clinging to the body, a decorated halo and the downcast eyes. The sandstone Sarnath Buddha in the posture of teaching (dharmachakra pravartana mudra) is a masterpiece. The bronze Sultanganj Buddha in Bihar, about 7.5 feet high, is an example of metal casting. The famous Hindu works are the Varaha incarnation of Vishnu at Udayagiri (Madhya Pradesh) and the sculptures of the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh. The Ajanta paintings of this age show the same refined art.

Sculpture of the Early Medieval Period

• Pallavas (Mahabalipuram): The huge open-air relief called Arjuna's Penance or the Descent of the Ganga, and the monolithic Five Rathas.
• Cholas: The great bronze images, especially the Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of the Dance) made by the cire perdue (lost-wax) method. The Chola bronzes of Shiva, Parvati and Vishnu are admired all over the world.
• Chandelas (Khajuraho): Beautiful temple sculptures of gods, dancers, musicians and daily life.
• Hoysalas (Belur and Halebidu): Highly detailed carving in soapstone with star-shaped temple plans.
• Eastern Gangas (Konark): The Sun Temple in the form of a chariot, with 24 stone wheels and horses.
• Palas: The bronzes and stone images of the Nalanda school, which influenced Tibet and Southeast Asia.

The metal casting technique was the lost-wax process: a wax model is covered with clay, heated to melt the wax, and molten metal (usually an alloy of five metals called panchaloha) is poured in the mould. Since the mould is broken to take out the image, each piece is unique.

Pottery Traditions

Even today, there are famous pottery traditions such as the blue pottery of Jaipur, the black pottery of Longpi in Manipur (a Geographical Indication product) and the terracotta of Bankura in West Bengal.

Ancient and Early Indian Coins

• Punch-marked coins (from about the 6th century BCE): The earliest Indian coins, usually silver, called karshapanas or panas, with symbols stamped by punches. They were issued by the Mahajanapadas and the Mauryas.
• Indo-Greek coins: The first to bear the portrait of the king and the legends in Greek and Kharoshthi. The ruler Menander is famous.
• Kushan coins: Vima Kadphises issued the first gold coins in India; Kanishka's coins show the Buddha, Shiva and other deities.
• Satavahana coins: Often of lead, with a ship, which shows the maritime trade.
• Gupta coins: The gold dinaras of high artistic quality. Samudragupta is shown playing the veena (lyrist type), and some coins show him as a warrior.
• Medieval coins: The silver tanka and copper jital of the Sultans, the rupiya of Sher Shah and the Mughal silver rupee.

The study of coins is called numismatics. Coins give us the names of rulers, dates, the extent of the kingdoms, the metal purity, trade links, and the religious beliefs of the age. Also read our notes on Buddhist architecture and temple architecture.

Wood, Ivory and Terracotta Traditions

Apart from stone and metal, Indian artists worked in many other materials. Terracotta figures, made from baked clay, were common from the Harappan period onward and are still produced in the villages of Bengal (Bankura horses), Tamil Nadu (Aiyanar horses) and Gujarat. Wood carving was used in temples, chariots and houses; the wooden temple chariots of South India and the carved doors of Gujarat are examples. Ivory carving flourished in Kerala, Mysore and Bengal, and the stone inlay work (pietra dura) of the Mughal buildings, such as the Taj Mahal, used semi-precious stones in marble. The metal craft of Bidriware from Bidar (an alloy of zinc inlaid with silver) is a Geographical Indication product. Together, these crafts show the continuity of the Indian artistic tradition from the ancient to the modern age.

Mains Angle: Gandhara vs Mathura

You can compare them in a table of origin, influence, material, style and themes. Add that the Mathura school was indigenous and also produced Hindu and Jain images, whereas the Gandhara school was a fusion of Indian and Greco-Roman art and mostly made Buddhist images. Conclude that both schools together established the image of the Buddha in human form, which later influenced the art of Central Asia, China and Southeast Asia.

How to Learn This Topic

Make a simple table with four columns: period, region, material and famous example. Fill one row for each school or tradition, and revise it once a week. Visit the online galleries of museums, such as the National Museum in Delhi and the Government Museum at Chennai, to see the images, which will help you to remember them. Link every sculpture with the ruler who patronised it, because the exam often asks about the patron.

Practice Questions

• Q1. Which school of art shows Greco-Roman influence? Answer: Gandhara school.
• Q2. Which stone was used in the Mathura school? Answer: Spotted red sandstone.
• Q3. Which ruler first issued gold coins in India among the Kushans? Answer: Vima Kadphises.
• Q4. What is the method of making Chola bronzes called? Answer: Lost-wax (cire perdue).

Quick Revision

• Mauryan: polished pillars, Sarnath Lion Capital, Didarganj Yakshi, Dhauli elephant.
• Gandhara: Greco-Roman, grey schist; Mathura: red sandstone, indigenous; Amaravati: white marble.
• Gupta: Sarnath Buddha, Sultanganj bronze; Chola: Nataraja bronze.
• Pottery: OCP, BRW, PGW, NBPW; coins: punch-marked, Kushan gold, Gupta dinara.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

Which school of art has Greco-Roman influence?

The Gandhara school shows Greco-Roman influence.

What stone was used in the Mathura school?

Spotted red sandstone was used in the Mathura school.

Where is the Lion Capital of Sarnath used today?

The Lion Capital of Sarnath is the National Emblem of India.

Which is the famous bronze image of the Cholas?

The Nataraja, Shiva as the Lord of the Dance, is the most famous Chola bronze.

What is the lost-wax method?

It is a metal casting method in which a wax model is covered with clay, the wax is melted out and molten metal is poured in.

Where is the Sultanganj Buddha made of bronze found?

It was found at Sultanganj in Bihar and is a Gupta-age bronze.

What is Northern Black Polished Ware?

It is a shiny luxury pottery of about 700 to 200 BCE, linked with the Mauryan and Mahajanapada age.

What are punch-marked coins?

They are the earliest Indian coins, usually silver, stamped with symbols using punches.

Who issued the first gold coins in India among the Kushans?

Vima Kadphises issued the first Kushan gold coins.

Which temple is shaped like a chariot with 24 wheels?

The Sun Temple at Konark in Odisha is shaped like a chariot.

What is numismatics?

Numismatics is the study of coins.

Which pottery is linked with Roman trade at Arikamedu?

Rouletted ware is linked with Roman trade at Arikamedu.