Indian Literature and Classical Languages Notes for UPSC

Indian literature is one of the oldest and richest literary traditions in the world. It is written in many languages and covers religion, philosophy, science, poetry, drama and history. For the UPSC, the topic is important because the Prelims asks which author wrote which work, which languages have the classical status and what the Eighth Schedule contains, while the Mains asks about the role of literature in shaping Indian culture. This note explains the literature from the Vedic age to modern times in simple language, with tables for quick learning.

Vedic and Sanskrit Literature

The oldest literature of India is in Sanskrit. The four Vedas are the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. The Rigveda has hymns to the gods, the Samaveda is a book of chants, the Yajurveda has the rules of sacrifice, and the Atharvaveda has spells and everyday knowledge. After the Vedas came the Brahmanas (rituals), the Aranyakas (forest texts) and the Upanishads (philosophy), which are also called Vedanta. The two great epics are the Ramayana attributed to Valmiki and the Mahabharata attributed to Vyasa, which contains the Bhagavad Gita. There are also 18 main Puranas with stories of gods, kings and the creation of the world, and the Smritis like the Manusmriti on law and society.

Classical Sanskrit Writers and Works

Pali and Prakrit Literature

The Buddhist canon, the Tripitaka, is written in Pali and has three baskets: the Vinaya Pitaka (rules for monks), the Sutta Pitaka (teachings of the Buddha) and the Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy). The Jataka stories tell about the earlier births of the Buddha. The Jain scriptures, called the Agamas, are in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, and the Jain tradition produced works in Prakrit, Apabhramsha and Sanskrit. The edicts of Ashoka were written in Prakrit, mainly in the Brahmi script. These languages were the common languages of the people, which is why Buddhism and Jainism could spread so widely.

Tamil Sangam Literature

The Tamil literature of the Sangam age (about 300 BCE to 300 CE) is a very early and rich tradition. The Tolkappiyam is the oldest Tamil grammar. The Sangam collections are the Ettuthokai (eight anthologies) and the Pattuppattu (ten idylls). The Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar is a collection of couplets on ethics, politics and love. The two Tamil epics are the Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal and the Manimekalai by Sattanar. Later, Kamban wrote the Tamil Ramayana (Ramavataram) in the Chola period, and the Alvars and the Nayanars composed devotional poems.

Medieval Literature and the Bhakti Tradition

In the medieval period, regional languages came up, mainly through the Bhakti and Sufi movements. Amir Khusrau wrote in Persian and Hindavi and is called the "Parrot of India" (Tuti-e-Hind). Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi, Surdas wrote the Sursagar in Braj, Kabir composed the Bijak and Mirabai wrote devotional songs. Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the Padmavat in Awadhi. Jnaneshwar wrote the Jnaneshwari, a commentary on the Gita in Marathi, and Tukaram and Eknath enriched Marathi. In Bengal, Chandidas and Chaitanya's followers wrote in Bengali, and in Mithila, Vidyapati wrote in Maithili. Basaveshwara's Vachanas are important in Kannada, and Shankaradeva wrote in Assamese.

Modern Indian Literature

The modern period started in the 19th century with the contact with the West, the printing press and the social reform movements. Bankim Chandra Chatterjee wrote Anandamath, which has the song Vande Mataram. Rabindranath Tagore won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913 for Gitanjali and is the author of the national anthem. Premchand wrote Godan and Godaan in Hindi and Urdu about village life. Subramania Bharati wrote patriotic poems in Tamil. Later writers such as Mahasweta Devi, U. R. Ananthamurthy, Amrita Pritam and R. K. Narayan made Indian writing famous around the world.

Classical Languages of India

The Government of India gives the "Classical Language" status to a language that has a very old history and an independent literary tradition. The main criteria include early texts that are more than 1,500 to 2,000 years old, a body of ancient literature that is considered a heritage by its speakers, and a literary tradition that is original and not borrowed from another community. The status gives benefits such as special awards for scholars and the setting up of centres of excellence.

With these additions in October 2024, the total number of classical languages became eleven.

The Eighth Schedule and Literary Awards

The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution lists 22 languages. It had 14 languages at the start; Sindhi was added by the 21st Amendment (1967), Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali by the 71st Amendment (1992), and Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santhali by the 92nd Amendment (2003). The Sahitya Akademi, set up in 1954, gives its awards in 24 languages, which includes English and Rajasthani apart from the 22 languages. The Jnanpith Award, started in 1965, is the highest literary honour in India, and the first winner was the Malayalam poet G. Sankara Kurup. For the awards, you can also read our awards and honours notes.

Regional Literature at a Glance

Literature and Society

Literature in India has always been a mirror of society and also a tool of change. The Upanishads gave the philosophical base of Indian thought. The Bhakti poets wrote in the language of the common people and questioned caste and ritual, which helped to build a more equal social outlook. During the freedom movement, writers used poems, novels and plays to wake up the national spirit. Bankim's Vande Mataram, Tagore's songs, Subramania Bharati's poems, and the Urdu poetry of Iqbal and Josh helped the people to think about freedom, unity and dignity. After Independence, the writers turned to subjects such as Partition, poverty, caste, gender and urban life. Women writers like Ismat Chughtai and Mahasweta Devi, and Dalit writers like Omprakash Valmiki, widened the area of Indian literature. For the Mains, you can use these examples to show the link between culture, social reform and nation-building.

Mains Angle: Role of Languages in Unity and Diversity

A common Mains question asks about India's linguistic diversity. In your answer, you can mention that the Constitution recognises 22 languages in the Eighth Schedule, that Hindi is the official language of the Union along with English, and that the States have their own official languages. You can point out that classical language status helps in preserving old texts, and that the National Education Policy 2020 stresses the use of the mother tongue in early schooling. Also mention challenges, such as the decline of tribal and minor languages, and suggest the documentation of languages, digital tools for translation and support for the translation of literature, so that Indian writing can be read across the regions.

How to Learn Authors and Books Quickly

• Group by language: Sanskrit, Tamil, Hindi dialects, Bengali, Marathi and so on.
• Group by period: Vedic, classical, medieval Bhakti and modern.
• Learn one line about each work: it is a play, a poem, a grammar or a history.
• Remember the pairs: Kalidasa-Shakuntalam, Tulsidas-Ramcharitmanas, Tagore-Gitanjali, Kalhana-Rajatarangini.

Tip: make a one-page chart with three columns (language, author, work) and add a new row whenever you read about a literary award or a classical language in the news.

Quick Revision

• Four Vedas; 18 Puranas; two epics; Tripitaka in Pali; Agamas in Prakrit.
• Sangam texts: Tolkappiyam, Ettuthokai, Pattuppattu; epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.
• Eleven classical languages in all; Tamil was the first in 2004.
• Eighth Schedule has 22 languages; Sahitya Akademi recognises 24.

To see how literature links with other arts, read our notes on music and classical dances.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

How many Vedas are there?

There are four Vedas: the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda.

Who wrote the Arthashastra?

Kautilya (Chanakya) wrote the Arthashastra, a book on statecraft and economy.

Which language was the first to get classical language status in India?

Tamil was the first to get classical status, in 2004.

How many classical languages are there in India?

There are eleven classical languages: Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Odia, Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali.

How many languages are in the Eighth Schedule?

The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution lists 22 languages.

Who wrote the Rajatarangini?

Kalhana wrote the Rajatarangini, the history of Kashmir.

Who wrote the Ramcharitmanas?

Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas in Awadhi.

What is the Tripitaka?

It is the Buddhist canon in Pali, with the Vinaya, Sutta and Abhidhamma Pitakas.

What are the Tamil epics?

The Silappadikaram by Ilango Adigal and the Manimekalai by Sattanar are the Tamil epics.

Who won the first Jnanpith Award?

The Malayalam poet G. Sankara Kurup won the first Jnanpith Award in 1965.

In how many languages does the Sahitya Akademi give awards?

The Sahitya Akademi gives awards in 24 languages, including English and Rajasthani.

Why is Indian literature important for the UPSC?

It helps in the Prelims through author-work questions and in the Mains through the study of culture and the role of languages.